"The sense of an expression may be defined as the set, or network, of sense-relations that hold between it and other expressions of the same language." (Lyons, Linguistics Semantics: An Introduction, 1995, p.80)
1.1. Synonymy: words sharing similar sense
freedom/liberty, gain/acquire, big/large
Full synonyms: interchangeable in all contexts (is this possible?)
- Structuralism: full synonymy is not possible because
expressions have meaning by contrasting with others
- Bolinger (Meaning and Form, 1977): a difference
in form always entails a difference in meaning
Partial synonyms: interchangeable in some contexts
| informal (Germanic, monosyllabic) | formal (Latinate, polysyllabic) |
| buy | purchase |
| ask | request |
| mad | insane |
1.2 Antonymy: senses opposed to each other
complementary pairs: a implies ~ b ( not b)
dead -> not alive
wrong -> not right
gradable antonyms: a does not imply ~ b
neither tall nor short
neither hot nor cold
1.3 Hyponymy: sense of one word included in (hypo 'under') the sense of the other
triumph as hyponym of success
profound as hyponym of deep
fortune as hyponym of luck ?
1.4 Meronymy: relationship between part and whole
meronymy: "une topologie de l'ontologie" (a topology
of ontology)
house
/ | \
roof wall window
1.3 Practical applications of sense relations
The dictionary: definitions using sense relations
destiny: that which is destined to happen;
FATE. (Shorter Oxford English Dictionary)
fate: destiny or fortune apparently determined
by fate. (Longman Dictionary of the English Language.)
Sense relations and linguistic solipsism
Solipsism (Locke): the state of being understood only by
oneself
Linguistic solipsism (Saeed): the problem whereby language
can be related only to itself
The thesaurus: a network of related terms used by writers for choice
of words
example: thesaurus entries for free
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Meanings:
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Synonyms:
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Meanings:
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Synonyms:
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Gratis (adj)
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Free of charge,
Without charge, Complimentary,
At no cost,
On the house
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Without charge
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changeless, complimentary, costless, free of cost,
gratis, gratuitous, handout, unpaid, unrecompensed
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Liberated (adj)
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open,
unbounded,
boundless,
limitless,
unrestrained,
released,
uncontrolled, uninhibited, emancipated,
restricted (antonym)
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Unrestrained personally
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able, allowed, at large, at liberty, casual, clear,
disengaged, easy, escaped, familiar, forward, frank, free spirited, free
wheeling, independent, informal, lax, liberal, liberated, loose, open,
permitted, relaxed, unattached, uncommitted, unconfined , unconstrained,
unengaged , unfettered, unhampered, unimpeded, unobstructed, unregulated,
unrestricted, untrammeled
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Unrestrained politically
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at liberty, autarchic, autonomic, autonomous, democratic,
emancipated, enfranchised, freed, independent, individualistic, liberated,
self-directing, self-governing, self-ruling, separate, sovereign, Sui suris,
unconstrained, unenslaved, unregimented
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Not busy; unoccupied
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at leisure, available, clear, empty, extra, idle,
loose, spare, unemployed, unengaged, unhampered, unimpeded, uninhabited,
unobstruced, unused, vacant
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The Graduate Record Exam (GRE): parallel sense relations
attempt:try::merit: a. gain
criticize:scold::ask: a. request
b. deserve
b.question
c. acquire
c. beg
Homonymy: unrelated senses of the same (phonological) word
homophones: luk6 'deer' vs. luk6 'six' vs.
luk6 'green'
homographs: lok6 'joy' vs. ngok6 'music'
in written Chinese
Puns based on homophones
An American Tail (tale)
Reagan wins on budget, but more lies ahead
absolute homonymy: same word class, all forms sound alike
trunk n. body of tree.
trunk n. box for keeping clothes,
etc.
chest n. upper part of torso, front
part of body
chest n. box for keeping clothes,
valuables etc.
partial homonymy: certain forms sound alike
lie v.i.say things which are not true.
Past = lied
lie, v.i. be located in a horizontal
position. Past = lay
lay, v.t. place on a horizontal position.
Past = laid
Polysemy: related senses of the same word
run:
run a race
run a competition
run a computer program
wan2: seek; visit, contact; use
wan2 gung1 "look for work"
dak1haan4 lai4 wan2 ngo5 laa1 "come and see me when
you have time"
hou2 loi4 mou5 wan2 gwo3 keoi5 "haven't conatcted
her for a long time"
wan2 faai3 bou6 maat3 gon1zeng6 "use a cloth to
wipe it clean"
gwo3 as in gwo3 maa5lou6 "cross
the road" (lexical)
gwo3 as in zoi6 se2 gwo3 "rewrite,
write over" (grammatical?)
gwo3 as in mei6 heoi3 gwo3 "haven't
been there" (grammatical)
gwo3 as in faai3 gwo3 ngo5 "faster
than me" (grammatical)
gwo3 VERB: "cross,
pass"
gwo3 verbal complement
: "again"
gwo3 aspect marker: "to
have experienced"
gwo3 clitic: "(more) than"
grammaticalization: development of grammatical functions in lexical items
semantic "bleaching"
I'm going to have
dinner (going somewhere in order to eat, or intending to eat)
I'm going to write
a letter (intending to write one)
I'm going to be fired
(future, expected event)
phonological reduction
I'm going to
New York (*I'm gonna New York)
I'm going to
have dinner -> I'm gonna have dinner